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| quote: | The Microbiological Safety of Bottled Water in Canada
01.jul.01, Li, W.M.K., Lacroix, B. and Powell, D.A, Food Safety Network
Introduction
Bottled water is any potable water that is manufactured, distributed or offered for sale, which is sealed in food-grade bottles or other containers and is intended for human consumption (Food and Drug Administration, 1995; Warburton and Austin, 1997). Canadians consumed about 700 million liters of bottled water in 1998, approximately 22 liters per capita (Caldwell, 2000). It has been estimated that about half a billion dollars were spent on bottled water in 1999 (CBC, 2000). During the last decade, domestic consumption has climbed approximately 10 per cent a year, making it the fastest growing product in the Canadian beverage industry. The consumption of bottled water is even more popular in the United States, Europe, Asia and Latin America. For instance, consumption in Italy was 137 liters per capita in 1995 (Caldwell, 2000).
Bottled water has been perceived as pure, clean, good quality and "protected." Some consumers may have reduced confidence in their tap water because of outbreaks such as E. coli O157:H7 in the municipal water supply of Walkerton, Ont., which killed seven and sickened 2,500. Some consumers may dislike the taste, color and odor from municipal water supplies, as well as concerns about fluoride, chlorine, and other additives. There is also the perception that natural-source waters have beneficial medicinal and therapeutic properties (Warburton et al., 1992).
Many bottled waters contain spring, mineral or glacial water. Yet bottled water can also be manufactured from tap water. Demineralized water or distilled water is simply tap water that has undergone processes to lower mineral content and to remove chemicals such as chlorine (Health Canada, 2001). According to Paul Kirkby, a food specialist with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, tap water and bottled water are virtually the same. The risks for contamination of bottled water are the same as those for municipal water (Calugay, 2000).
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the microbiological quality of bottled water in Canada, including a review of outbreaks related to bottled water, current regulations regarding bottled water in Canada and the safety measures taken by bottled water industry. Survey results concerning the microbiological quality of bottled water sold in Canada between 1981-1989 and 1992–1997 will be discussed
Outbreaks Associated with Bottled Water
In Canada, no waterborne disease outbreaks have been associated with the consumption of bottled water (Health Canada, 2001). There has been one major waterborne microbial outbreak associated with this product worldwide (REF)
However, bottled water has been occasionally related to the diarrheal condition known as traveler’s disease. During the cholera epidemic of 1974 in Portugal, bottled mineral water was identified as one of the vehicles of transmission of Vibro cholerae. The source water, a limestone aquifer, was believed to be contaminated by raw river water and/or sewage from nearby villages. Also, the manufacturing plants may not have conducted microbial testing to ensure the safety of their products.
The lack of reported outbreaks related to bottled water reflects the overall high quality of most products. However, physicians and epidemiologist may fail to inquire about the consumption of bottled water when investigating enteric illnesses. Also, under-reporting may be common, as diseases caused by many of the bacteria found in bottled water are usually mild and self-limiting. In addition, it may be difficult to recover pathogens in bottled water because of the viable but non-culturable nature of the stressed microorganisms (Warburton, 2000).
Current Regulations on Bottled Water in Canada
In Canada, bottled water is considered to be a food product and is regulated through the Canadian Food and Drugs Act. The different types of bottled water that may be purchased in Canada are shown in Table 1. Under Division 12 of the Regulations, mineral or spring water must be potable water from an underground source (not from a public water supply) that contains less than 500mg/L of total dissolved solids. Mineral and spring waters must not have their composition modified through the use of chemicals, but carbon dioxide and ozone can be added during the bottling process to protect the freshness (Health Canada, 2001).
Bottled water from other sources such as municipal water and well water can be treated or modified to make it suitable for human consumption. Harmful bacteria can be removed by the treatments of carbonation, ozonation, ultraviolet irradiation and filtration. These bottled waters can be distilled or passed through different de-ionization processes to remove their minerals, or they are simply municipal tap waters bottled for sale. The final products must be properly labeled to show how they have been treated, for example "carbonated," "demineralized," or ‘"distilled" (Health Canada, 2001).
All bottled water offered for sale must be safe for people to consume. Canadian microbiological limits for bottled water are shown in Table 2. The sale of bottled water is not licensed, but is subject to government inspection (Health Canada, 2001). Inspectors from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) visit bottling plants every 12 to 18 months to examine the results of regular tests for bacteria and other contaminants (Caldwell, 2000). Imported products are also regularly inspected to ensure their safety. If the agency finds that a manufacturer is not meeting Canadian standards, inspectors will take appropriate actions to correct the situation, including following up with the manufacturer or the importer. Some provincial and municipal agencies also conduct surveillance of bottled waters (Health Canada, 2001). However, the responsibility lies with manufacturers to make sure microbial tests are regularly conducted (Calugay, 2000).
Safety Measures Taken by Bottled Water Industries
The Canadian Bottled Water Association (CBWA) was founded in 1992 to represent the Canadian bottled water industry and to ensure the high standard of quality for bottled water. Members of the association must pass an annual, unannounced plant inspection administered by an independent, internationally recognized organization. Members must also regularly conduct microbial testing by qualified personnel and pass an annual water analysis administered by an independent government certified laboratory. The CBWA claims that their model code is a quality assurance program with more extensive requirements than federal and provincial authorities (CBWA, 2001). In addition, the association has been pushing the federal government to strengthen the testing standards so that they are stricter than municipalities. This would allow bottlers to claim their products are safer than tap water (Caldwell, 2000).
Survey Results of the Microbiological Quality of Bottled Water in Canada
Health Canada has conducted a variety of surveys to examine the microbial quality of both domestic and imported bottled water since 1980. Rejection rates of bottled water between 1981 and 1989 are shown in Table 3. On average, 40% of bottled water on the Canadian market between 1981 and 1989 had aerobic colony counts (ACC) that exceeded the standards set at the time (Warburton et al., 1992). The effect of storage at room temperature for 30 days was investigated in the 1987 to 1988 survey. The ACC count increased when the product was held at room temperature, resulting in an increase in the number of non-complying lots. The rapid growth of bacteria after the water is bottled may be due to oxygenation of the water during the bottling process, the increased surface area provided by the bottle, the increase in temperature, and the trace amounts of nutrients arising from the bottle.
The 1992-1997 survey has demonstrated that marginal improvement in the reduction of ACC, coliforms, and pathogens has occurred for bottled water since the previous studies. Of the 3,460 sample units tested for ACC, 23.3% and 5.5% exceeded 102 cfu/ml and 104 cfu/ml respectively. Of these, 1.2% were contaminated with P. aeruginosa, 0.6% were contaminated with A. hydrophila, 3.7% were non-compliant for coliforms and 2.1% were non-compliant for faecal coliforms. So, about 29% in total were non-compliant. Consistent with previous findings, the majority of coliforms were found in non-carbonated mineral water (Warburton et al., 1998). Carbonation can lower the pH of the products and thus, microorganisms are less likely to grow (Warburton, 2000). A smaller survey in 1996-1997 showed that only 5% of the tested samples were found to have ACC counts between 10 and 103 cfu/ml. The lower bacteria content might be attributed to the smaller sample sizes. Also, most of the tested products were ozonated, carbonated or disinfected by other means. Carbonated bottled water sampled in the 1983-1989 survey had a lower rejection rate than water that did not go through the final disinfection step of carbonation or ozonation (Warburton et al., 1992). This indicated that disinfection processes could significantly reduce the bacterial load (Warburton et al., 1998).
Critics on the Regulation of Bottled Water
Various scientists have notes there are more extensive regulations governing tap water than bottled water. P. Payment is an internationally recognized microbiologist at the University of Quebec. During a television program, CBC’s Marketplace, Payment stated that there are more regulations for tap water and more samples are tested on a regular basis (REF)
The Ontario Ministry of Environment sets a minimum number of bacteria samples to be taken by municipal water treatment plants each month. Conversely, bottled water companies, which are regulated federally, are not required to take a minimum number of tests. Microbiologist Arthur Ley of Kingston, who worked for the Ministry of Environment for 21 years, agrees that bottled water companies are not as stringently regulated as municipalities (Calugay, 2000). Hence, there is no guarantee, because government regulations for bottled water simply don’t require the same rigorous tests that municipal systems undergo. Even though Paul Kirby, a food specialist with CFIA, insisted that the system is tough enough to ensure the safety of bottled water, he admitted the individual inspectors have a great deal of discretion. There are no set requirements, for instance, on the frequency with which bottlers must test their water. Although members of the Canadian Bottled Water Association have to follow strict standards, all of its conditions, including daily tests for bacterial contamination, remain voluntary (Caldwell, 2000).
Conclusions
Bottled water plays a vital role in the diet of many Canadians. It is used as a replacement for soft drinks and alcohol, and is perceived by consumers as a purer or better tasting alternative than tap water. The bottled water available in Canada is generally of good quality as reflected by the zero reported cases of outbreaks linked to this product. There has been only one documented major outbreak related to bottle water worldwide (Warburton, 2000). However, consumers should be aware that bottled water is not necessarily safer than tap water. Both bottled water and municipal water may contain the same microorganisms since both can originate from the same sources (Warburton, 2000). Therefore, the risk of contamination of bottled water is the same as those for municipal water (Calugay, 2000). In addition, many Canadians are not aware that bottled water is a food product and thus, is not a sterile product. Under improper and/or prolong storage of bottled water, bacteria can grow to levels that may be harmful to human health. A 1988 Health Canada study of bottled water kept at room temperature for 30 days showed a substantial increase in the bacterial count. Hence, refrigeration of bottled water is recommended to minimize microbial growth (Health Canada, 2001).
Scientists have criticized the tests on bottled water as neither regular nor rigorous. Inspectors from the CFIA only check bottling plants every 12 to 18 months. Also, there are no guidelines on the frequency with which manufacturers must test their water (Caldwell, 2000). Although the Canadian Bottled Water Association requires members to follow stringent code of practices, however, all the conditions remain voluntary and not all bottled water manufacturers belong to the CBWA. Moreover, membership is not indicated on the product label and thus, it may be difficult for consumers to find out if a particular brand belongs to the CBWA. The minor improvement on the microbial quality of bottled water examined during the 1990s as compared to the 1980s indicates that more effort is needed to ensure the safety of bottled water. Since bottled water maybe consumed by the susceptible population such as the elderly, the children, the pregnant women and the immunocompromised, bottled water must show to be safe (Warburton, 2000). In the future, more extensive surveillance of bottled water industries and more stringent regulations should be developed and enforced.
© 2008 University of Guelph |
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Recycling is a fantastic solution as long as you can get people to participate. The only industry that managed to get almost total succes out of their recycling program was the beer industry. What the government needs to do is make the producers of bottled water and bottled drinks for that matter, responsible for the full lifespan of their product, from production, through consumption and ultimately to disposal/recycle (ie from the cradle to the grave) so to speak.
The article above is a study done by the university of guelph into the safety of bottled water (from a microbial perspective). Its fairly conclusive that bottled water may under some circumstances have far more bacterial cultures than tap water. Municipal water supplies are far more rigorously tested and monitored by the gov than bottled water is.
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| quote: | Originally posted by pkcRAISTLIN
I have 3 hobbies: gaming, DJing & correcting maladjusted fools on the internet. |
| quote: | Originally posted by pkcRAISTLIN
Yeah, I’d like to know what horrible, scarring incident in your childhood turned you into such an ignorant, intellectual-hating philistine? |
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